This is the seminal essay by historian Carroll Smith-Rosenberg published in 1975. In this essay, which later became the anchor essay of her 1985 monograph Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, Smith-Rosenberg uses women's correspondence and diaries to explore the intensity of 19th-century female friendships. She explains that to late 20th-century readers, "their love appears to have been both sensual and platonic" (55). Smith-Rosenberg ends her essay with a recognition of the psychosexual implications of her model, but she ultimately rejects an individual psychosexual approach to female friendships as a poor methodological match for the available historical data. She instead situates the friendships within social relations and social values in order to "shift the focus of the study from a concern with deviance to that of defining configurations of legitimate behavioral norms and options" (54). Much of the research into female homosocial relationships references this essay, though its central claims have been complicated by recent scholarship on gender and sexuality.
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Schaub, D. (1995). Sisters at Odds, The Public Interest, Winter, 1995 issue: 100-105.
Diana Schaub, Professor and Chair of Political Science at the Jesuit Loyola College, Maryland, here reviews Christina Hoff Sommers’ Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women. Schaub, a conservative, was appointed, for example, by Bush to the President’s Council on Bioethics as a feminist. Sommers, who was a professor of philosophy at Clark University, has been known for supporting equity feminism and disavowing a focus on misogyny. In this review Schaub uses James’ The Bostonians to show that not only was first wave feminism (equity), political rights and equality of educational and economic opportunity present, but also second wave feminism (gender), gender based, or gynecocentric, was present in the 19th century. Mrs. Farrinder is seen as representing equity feminism whereas Olive Chancellor’s goal is characterized as male suffering representing gender feminism. Schaub supports Sommers’ criticism of anti-erotic gender feminism, pointing out Olive’s loss of Verena to Basil, the “utterly unregenerate reactionary from Mississippi”. Schaub uses The Bostonians, in her words, to alert “us to the fact that gender feminism is not as novel as one might have believed.” Schaub criticizes Sommers” dismissal of second wave feminism as relying “a bit too much on ridicule rather than argument”. But in the end Schaub is supportive of Sommers’ “courageous and incisive criticism” of those who have deflected feminism “from a more mainstream course”. (JB)
Diana Schaub, Professor and Chair of Political Science at the Jesuit Loyola College, Maryland, here reviews Christina Hoff Sommers’ Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women. Schaub, a conservative, was appointed, for example, by Bush to the President’s Council on Bioethics as a feminist. Sommers, who was a professor of philosophy at Clark University, has been known for supporting equity feminism and disavowing a focus on misogyny. In this review Schaub uses James’ The Bostonians to show that not only was first wave feminism (equity), political rights and equality of educational and economic opportunity present, but also second wave feminism (gender), gender based, or gynecocentric, was present in the 19th century. Mrs. Farrinder is seen as representing equity feminism whereas Olive Chancellor’s goal is characterized as male suffering representing gender feminism. Schaub supports Sommers’ criticism of anti-erotic gender feminism, pointing out Olive’s loss of Verena to Basil, the “utterly unregenerate reactionary from Mississippi”. Schaub uses The Bostonians, in her words, to alert “us to the fact that gender feminism is not as novel as one might have believed.” Schaub criticizes Sommers” dismissal of second wave feminism as relying “a bit too much on ridicule rather than argument”. But in the end Schaub is supportive of Sommers’ “courageous and incisive criticism” of those who have deflected feminism “from a more mainstream course”. (JB)
Faderman, Lillian. "Nineteenth Century Boston Marriage as a Possible Lesson for Today." Boston Marriages: Romantic But Asexual Relationships Among Contemporary Lesbians. By Esther D. Rothblum and Kathleen A. Broheyn. 1994. 29-41. Web. 2 Mar. 2014.
In this chapter, Faderman discusses the pervasiveness of the “Boston marriage” in late 19th century society and how the nature of such relationships could actually be a practical option for career women in the 21st century. Faderman mentions Henry James and The Bostonians, notably for the close relationship depicted between Olive and Verena, and describes how such a relationship doesn't necessarily have to be a trend of the past. The author notes that the term "lesbian" changed public opinion regarding the Boston marriage as the word became increasingly sexualized over the years to solely apply to a sexually intimate relationship between two females, rather than applying to a strictly asexual union. Faderman delves deeper into the history of the word’s change in meaning and the fading of the female trend. She argues that despite the semantic changes and stigmatization of Boston marriages, the arrangement is both viable and logical for today’s single working women and could potentially take feminism to new heights. Although the chapter seems to appeal to the psychology of female homosexual and asexual relationships, it remains easily comprehensible as the text is not overly impeded with field-specific jargon or concepts. (KC)
In this chapter, Faderman discusses the pervasiveness of the “Boston marriage” in late 19th century society and how the nature of such relationships could actually be a practical option for career women in the 21st century. Faderman mentions Henry James and The Bostonians, notably for the close relationship depicted between Olive and Verena, and describes how such a relationship doesn't necessarily have to be a trend of the past. The author notes that the term "lesbian" changed public opinion regarding the Boston marriage as the word became increasingly sexualized over the years to solely apply to a sexually intimate relationship between two females, rather than applying to a strictly asexual union. Faderman delves deeper into the history of the word’s change in meaning and the fading of the female trend. She argues that despite the semantic changes and stigmatization of Boston marriages, the arrangement is both viable and logical for today’s single working women and could potentially take feminism to new heights. Although the chapter seems to appeal to the psychology of female homosexual and asexual relationships, it remains easily comprehensible as the text is not overly impeded with field-specific jargon or concepts. (KC)
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McCollough, Kate. "The Boston marriage as the future of the nation: Queerly regional sexuality in Diana Victrix." American Literature. Mar1997, Vol. 69 Issue 1, p67. 37p. EBSCOhost. Web.
McCollough argues that the novel Diana Victrix by Florence Converse sought to utilize an accurate account of a Boston marriage to challenge the concurrent discourse that homosexuality was an “abnormal” attempt to “invert” the heterosexual norm. Instead, McCollough says, female same sex desire is based on not only romance, but friendship as well, which makes the “inversion” theory inaccurate and misplaced. The novel is part of a collection of narratives from the turn of the century that sought to explain women that chose to live without men. McCollough argues that this novel illustrates how sexual identity is formed through national identity, as the unification of a Southern woman to a Northern woman in Diana Victrix stands as a model for national unity based on sameness rather than difference.
[RJ]
Rothblum, Esther D., and Kathleen A. Brehony. Boston Marriages : Romantic but Asexual Relationships Among Contemporary Lesbians. Amherst: University of Massachusetts, 1993. Ebook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 1 Mar. 2014.
Rothblum and Brehony write their book to place the social phenomenon of the "Boston Marriage" in a modern context. The book follows up on a letter they received from Charles Silvestri, author of the book The Joy of Gay Sex and is intended for lesbian and gay male psychotherapists, though they mean it to be accessible to the lay person, focusing on members of the gay community. Through the interview and survey process in which they interviewed 1,500 self-identified lesbian couples, the authors do not propose a thesis in this introductory chapter, but aim to describe their methodology, define a "Boston Marriage," and then apply it with the goal of recontextualizing and repurposing notions of female homosocial and homosexual relationships in the 1990s. In the past" Boston marriage" meant "unmarried women who lived together in past decades." These women were presumed to be asexual (thus the name "Boston," which, according to the authors probably referred to the Puritan and asexual nature of the the relationship). While the assumption by lesbians is that these "marriages" were sexual, the authors felt it more accurate to define the phenomenon, in part, as an asexual one, though they avoid bias by admitting that this is a generalized conclusion with exceptions. They also note that their definition and criteria is complicated by disagreements over what constitutes "sex" and the unwillingness of certain interviewees (e.g. women in the military and women in situations [see #6 below] that made it less desirable to be openly gay).
To paraphrase, they conclude on the following criteria for a "Boston Marriage:"
1. The two members of the Boston marriage are not currently engaged in a sexual relationship with each other, though they may have in the past during a short period of time
2. One or both of the members are still sexually attracted to the other. In this regard, at least for one of the partners, the Boston marriage is different from a
friendship.
3. With the exception of the lack of sexual activity, all other aspects of the Boston marriage are indistinguishable from many lesbian lover relationships. The two members may refer to each other in public or private as lovers and be physically affectionate in public or private social situations. They will engage in shared activities that are rarely done by friends
4. The lesbian community is generally unaware that the two members are nonsexual and views them as a couple. Often the romantic nature of their relationship makes them role models for other lesbian couples to emulate, and there may be some social pressure on the two members not to break up. When the lesbian
community is aware that the two are not lovers, they will not be viewed as a couple.
5. Both members of the Boston marriage have typically had no, or limited, sexual experiences prior to the Boston marriage.
6. Both members of the Boston marriage are likely to be closeted to some degree in their place of employment due to concerns over employment, conservative communities, or the reaction of family members (It should be noted that one of the findings of the study was that more couples than expected were openly gay).
7. The two members of the Boston marriage usually have little or no direct communication about the lack of sexual activity in their relationship and the nature of their relationship. (KB)
Shaheen, Aaron. “The Social Dusk of that Mysterious Democracy”: Race, Sexology, and the New Woman in Henry James’ The Bostonians. ATQ: 19th Century American Literature and Culture. 19.4 (Dec. 2005): 281-99. JSTOR. Web. 10 Mar. 2014.
Shaheen opens his very interesting article with two quotes from James: “I wish to write a very American tale” (italics original) in conjunction with another quote, James noting how he is a writer “on whom nothing is lost” (281), setting up a larger argument about perceptions of homosexual desire in racialized terms. Influenced by nineteenth century sexological studies, Shaheen effectively argues James portrays Verena Tarrant as an Other figure in The Bostonians, with both Olive and Ransom pursuing a metaphorical “blackness,” but Shaheen’s attempts to tie in additional themes of New Woman and Sexology frequently do not blend in well, and end up detracting from the larger idea of Verena as Other. The idea of blackness in a woman described by James as very white initially seems ludicrous, but Shaheen effectively explores the concept with textual quotations and outside sources, thus permitting readers with patience and an open mind to benefit from a unique interpretation of the central figures within James’ novel. (DC)
Shaheen opens his very interesting article with two quotes from James: “I wish to write a very American tale” (italics original) in conjunction with another quote, James noting how he is a writer “on whom nothing is lost” (281), setting up a larger argument about perceptions of homosexual desire in racialized terms. Influenced by nineteenth century sexological studies, Shaheen effectively argues James portrays Verena Tarrant as an Other figure in The Bostonians, with both Olive and Ransom pursuing a metaphorical “blackness,” but Shaheen’s attempts to tie in additional themes of New Woman and Sexology frequently do not blend in well, and end up detracting from the larger idea of Verena as Other. The idea of blackness in a woman described by James as very white initially seems ludicrous, but Shaheen effectively explores the concept with textual quotations and outside sources, thus permitting readers with patience and an open mind to benefit from a unique interpretation of the central figures within James’ novel. (DC)
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Wood, Mary E. "`With Ready Eye': Margaret Fuller And Lesbianism In Nineteenth-Century American Literature." American Literature 65.1 (1993): 1. America:
History & Life. Web. 24 Feb. 2014.
A common theory about sexual identity is that before 1880, people could not identify as lesbian or gay because the concept didn't have a place in society. There were Romantic Friendship between same sexed individuals that were intimate, however these would not be considered lesbian or gay relationships, at least not in the way we have constructed the meaning of those relationships today. Romantic Friendships had played an acceptable role within society. However, Wood argues that Romantic Friendships do not adequately explain all same sex desire during this time period. She mainly uses Margret Fuller's letters and essays to show an individual with same sex desire that seems to go beyond the bounds of Romantic Friendship (which were often said to be the practice for marriage) struggling to fit into a heterosexual culture. Wood is hesitant to use the term lesbian desire because of the modern understanding, and because culturally it doesn't fit. However she does believe there is this third thing between lesbian and romantic friendship that goes unnamed in the essay, but she is creating space for someone to be aware that their desire is transgressive against the patriarchal heterosexual culture.
-ec
History & Life. Web. 24 Feb. 2014.
A common theory about sexual identity is that before 1880, people could not identify as lesbian or gay because the concept didn't have a place in society. There were Romantic Friendship between same sexed individuals that were intimate, however these would not be considered lesbian or gay relationships, at least not in the way we have constructed the meaning of those relationships today. Romantic Friendships had played an acceptable role within society. However, Wood argues that Romantic Friendships do not adequately explain all same sex desire during this time period. She mainly uses Margret Fuller's letters and essays to show an individual with same sex desire that seems to go beyond the bounds of Romantic Friendship (which were often said to be the practice for marriage) struggling to fit into a heterosexual culture. Wood is hesitant to use the term lesbian desire because of the modern understanding, and because culturally it doesn't fit. However she does believe there is this third thing between lesbian and romantic friendship that goes unnamed in the essay, but she is creating space for someone to be aware that their desire is transgressive against the patriarchal heterosexual culture.
-ec